ISLAM IS THE BEST (isisbest)

TEROR ZIONIS

2008-12-30T19:55:00.000-08:00

TEROR ZIONIS

Dalam bab sebelumnya, kita telah membahas pandangan Zionis bahwa kembalinya orang Yahudi ke Palestina merupakan sebuah “tujuan suci” dan bahwa perang yang dilancarkan untuk mencapai tujuan ini adalah sebuah “perang suci.” Gagasan ini memainkan peran penting dalam pendidikan orang-orang Israel. Menurut fakta yang ada, pemimpin-pemimpin utama Israel ada kalanya memberikan pandangan mereka bahwa anak-anak harus disuruh menjalani suatu pendidikan “Zionis.” Misalnya, Menteri Pendidikan Israel Limor Livnat memberikan pernyataannya tentang salah satu dari hari-hari terkeras selama Intifadah al-Aqsa bahwa “mengingat keadaan ini, anak-anak bangsa diminta untuk menerima pendidikan Zionis-Yahudi” dan bahwa “Sekolah-sekolah adalah bagian dari keamanan internal negara Israel."27 Perjanjian Lama mempunyai satu tempat khusus dalam sistem pendidikan ini, yang dirancang para Zionis untuk berpusat pada ayat-ayat tertentu. Kitab ini mengajak dengan penuh kebanggaan untuk melakukan tindakan kejam yang dilakukan (atau harus dilakukan) oleh Bani Israel, dibawah pimpinan Yosua, atas pribumi Palestina.

Dalam karya klasiknya The Case of Israel: A Study of Political Zionism, Roger Garaudy menerangkan sikap tersebut seperti berikut:

Menurut pihak berwenang Israel, anak-anak harus diajarkan ideologi Zionis dari usia muda. Akibatnya, anak-anak dibesarkan dengan keyakinan bahwa mereka memiliki ras unggul. Perlakuan brutal tentara Israel atas warga Palestina adalah akibat langsung ajaran ini.

Kitab Yosua, yang seringkali diejawantahkan hari ini oleh para rabbi tentara di Israel untuk menganjurkan perang suci, dan juga dalam banyak pengajaran-pengajaran sekolah, bersandar pada keharusan sakral adanya pemusnahan atas penduduk yang ditaklukkan, menumpas dengan “mata pedang” segala sesuatu “baik laki-laki maupun perempuan, baik tua maupun muda,” (Yosua, 6:21), seperti kita baca dalam cerita Jericho dan begitu banyak kota-kota lainnya.28

Perilaku yang ditunjukkan tentara-tentara Israel yang dibina dengan gagasan seperti ini sejalan dengan sikap ini. Saat ini dalam pendudukan Palestina, kejadian-kejadian mengerikan telah menjadi bagian dari kehidupan sehari-hari: Bayi berusia 18 bulan yang meninggal di tempat tidurnya ketika rumah-rumah mereka diserang oleh tembakan helikopter Israel, gadis remaja yang bekerja di kebun zaitun tertembak dan terbunuh tanpa alasan apa pun, dan anak-anak yang kembali ke rumahnya dari sekolah dengan luka dan lumpuh seumur hidupnya. Sistem pendidikan Zionis adalah akar dari masa tak berprikemanusiaan dan menghalalkan semua cara ini. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan dan cuci otak ini sangat berhasil guna. Dalam sebuah pengujian yang dilakukan oleh ahli psikologi Tel Aviv University G. Tamarin, sebuah pernyataan yang menggambarkan pembantaian Jericho dari Kitab Yosua dari Perjanjian Lama dibagi-bagikan kepada murid-murid kelas empat dan delapan. Mereka ditanya: “Anggaplah Tentara Israel menduduki sebuah desa Arab dalam sebuah pertempuran. Apakah kalian berpikir perlu, atau tidak, untuk bertindak melawan para penduduk seperti yang dilakukan Yosua kepada penduduk Jericho?” Jumlah yang menjawab “Ya” beragam dari 66% hingga 95% menurut sekolah yang didatangi atau kibbutz atau kota tempat anak-anak tinggal.29

Garaudy menekankan bahwa Kitab Yosua dan Perjanjian Lama secara umum adalah sumber teror Zionis:

Pandangan tentang “janji”, bersama-sama dengan makna perwujudannya (sebagai pemimpin Zionisme politik yang berasal dari Kitab di mana Yosua menceritakan takdirnya untuk memusnahkan penduduk sebelumnya, yang ia lakukan berdasar perintah Tuhan dan dengan pertolongannya) ditambah ungkapan “orang-orang terpilih” dan “Israel yang lebih agung” dari Nil hingga Eufrat, membentuk dasar-dasar ideologi Zionisme politik.30

Penembak jitu Israel menembak warga sipil Palestina tak bersenjata, termasuk wanita dan anak-anak.

Buku harian seorang tentara Israel yang diterbitkan oleh surat kabar Israel Davar adalah contoh penting untuk hal ini. Tentara yang kita bicarakan ini ikut serta dalam sebuah operasi untuk mengepung desa Palestina Ed-Dawayma pada tahun 1948, dan menggambarkan kejadian kejam yang ia saksikan:

Mereka membunuh antara delapan puluh hingga seratus lelaki, wanita, dan anak-anak Arab. Untuk membunuh anak-anak, mereka (para tentara) mematahkan kepala mereka dengan tongkat. Tidak ada satu rumah pun tanpa mayat. Para wanita dan anak-anak di desa tersebut dipaksa tinggal di dalam rumah tanpa makanan dan air. Kemudian, para tentara datang untuk meledakkan mereka dengan dinamit.

Seorang komandan memerintahkan seorang tentara untuk membawa dua wanita ke sebuah bangunan tempat ia menembaki mereka… Tentara lainnya bangga karena telah memerkosa seorang wanita Arab sebelum menembak mati dirinya. Wanita Arab lainnya yang mempunyai bayi disuruh membersihkan tempat itu selama beberapa hari, kemudian mereka menembaknya berikut bayinya. Para komandan yang terdidik dan sopan yang dianggap sebagai “orang baik” …. menjadi pembunuh tak berprikemanusiaan, dan ini tidak terjadi dalam sebuah pertempuran, melainkan hanya sebuah cara pengusiran dan pemusnahan. Semakin sedikit orang Arab yang tertinggal, semakin baik.31

Ini hanyalah salah satu dari banyak peristiwa kejam lainnya yang telah terjadi selama 50 tahun terakhir.

Sebelum pemerintahan Israel didirikan, kelompok Haganah, Irgun, dan Stem bertanggung jawab atas pengusiran orang-orang Palestina dari tanah mereka. Organisasi teroris sebelum 1948 dan tentara Israel setelah 1948 ini melakukan suatu kampanye teroris atas penduduk sipil Arab. Menachem Begin, pemimpin Irgun, kelak menjadi perdana menteri, menerangkan strategi mereka: "Orang-orang Arab berjuang dengan gigih dalam mempertahankan rumahnya, para wanita dan anak-anak mereka."32 Dengan kata lain, perang Zionis akan dilakukan melawan orang-orang tak berdosa.

Dan memang, semenjak tanggal tersebut orang-orang Palestina telah berjuang melindungi rumah mereka, para wanita, dan anak-anak dari kebijakan resmi Israel menteror seluruh orang-orang Palestina. Wartawan surat kabar dan ahli Timur Tengah Flora Lewis menerangkan kekejaman gaya Israel ini dalam artikelnya di International Herald Tribune:

Pihak berwenang Israel sekarang telah mengakui di depan publik sebuah kebijakan “serangan terarah” atas orang-orang Palestina yang dipercaya akan terlibat dalam terorisme. Ini merupakan pembunuhan politis terencana, yang sangat tepat disebut “tindak kriminal… pembunuhan” oleh Moshe Neghi, seorang jurnalis Israel terkemuka… Wakil Menteri Pertahanan Ephraim Sneh menyebutkan di radio bahwa kebijakan ini tegas. "Jika ada orang yang melakukan atau berencana melakukan serangan teroris, dia harus dipukul… Inilah yang efektif, tepat, dan adil."33

HUKUMAN MATI DI JALANAN…

Bagi tentara Israel, seluruh rakyat Palestina adalah sasaran. Mereka tidak peduli apakah orang-orang yang mereka temui itu anak-anak, perempuan, atau orang berusia lanjut.

Orang-orang Palestina kadangkala menghadapi peluru Israel di tempat-tempat pemeriksaan, di pasar, atau hanya sewaktu berdiri di pojok jalan atau tidur di atas ranjang.

DAN PENJAGAL

Harian Turki TÜRKIYE,
7 Agustus 2001
MENEMBAK MATI SECARA
TERANG-TERANGAN

Harian Turki GÖZCÜ, 19 Mei 2001
ISRAEL MENGEBOM KOTA GAZA

Harian Turki MILLI GAZETE,
18 Mei 2001
PALESTINA MEMBARA
Menyerang dengan helikopter,
tank, dan bulldozer, Israel
merambah tanah Palestina.

Harian Turki TÜRKIYE,
13 Oktober 2001
Israel Menjatuhkan Hujan Rudal
PALESTINA DIBASAHI DARAH

THE MUSLIM OBSERVER,
Februari 2002

THE INDEPENDENT,
Desember 2002

W. REPORT, April - Mei.1993

CRESCENT INT.,
16-31 Agustus 2001

Hampir tidak ada hari tanpa darah tertumpah dari orang yang tak bersalah di Palestina. Tentara Israel secara terencana menghancurkan orang-orang Palestina. Desa-desa dibom, rumah-rumah dimusnahkan, dan ladang-ladang dibakar. Sementara kekejaman ini muncul di media internasional dari waktu ke waktu, yang menyedihkan, pemimpin dunia masih belum cukup bertindak. Sebuah artikel dalam Crescent International dengan jelas menampilkan keadaan ini ketika menyatakan: “Palestinian deaths mount as Israelis given freedom to commit atrocities (Kematian warga Palestina memuncak ketika Israel memberi kebebasan melakukan pembantaian).” The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, dalam artikelnya “In Gaza, Israeli Rockets Replace Human Rights (Di Gaza, Roket-roket Israel Menggantikan Hak Azazi Manusia)” memberi peringatan bahwa kekerasan di Palestina hanya akan makin memburuk. Berita lain di media Turki juga mencerminkan parahnya keadaan.

Harus ditekankan bahwa, seperti disebutkan Sneh, upaya Israel ini tidak terbatas pada unsur-unsur teroris, melainkan juga mentargetkan seluruh orang.

Perincian yang diberikan di sini hanyalah sebagian kecil dari kekejaman yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Israel. Namun ini adalah sebuah tindakan yang dikenal baik oleh orang-orang Muslim Palestina, karena ada kemiripan yang erat antara penggambaran Al-Qur'an tentang Firaun dengan apa yang telah dilakukan pemimpin Israel Zionis kepada orang-orang Palestina tak berdosa. Dalam masanya, Firaun menetapkan sasaran orang-orang Yahudi yang lemah, tak punya pelindung dan dengan kejam membunuh mereka. Juga, pemimpin kaum Firaun mempunyai keterikatan yang kuat akan tanah mereka, sehingga Firaun berkata bahwa Musa "ingin mengusir kamu dari tanahmu” (Al-Qur'an, 7: 110) Wartawan Israel Uri Avnery menyoroti kemiripan ini. Dalam artikel “Pembunuhan Arafat,” ia mengingatkan kita bahwa salah satu keyakinan dasar Yudaisme adalah bahwa masa perbudakan Yahudi di Mesir tidak akan pernah terlupakan. Menurutnya, apa yang dilakukan orang-orang Israel atas Palestina saat ini hanyalah suatu bentuk kekejaman yang ditimpakan kepada leluhur Yahudi mereka oleh Firaun:

Dalam mitos baru yang terlahir di depan mata kita, Sharon adalah Firaun dan kita adalah orang-orang Mesir kuno. Dalam cerita tentang Keluaran, Alkitab menyebut firman Tuhan: “Aku telah mengeraskan hati (Firaun) dan hati budak-budaknya.” Setelah musibah yang menimpanya, Firaun melanggar janjinya untuk membebaskan orang-orang Israel… Dia (Tuhan) ingin bangsa Israel dikeraskan oleh kekerasan, sebelum mereka memulai perjalanan panjangnya. Inilah yang terjadi kepada bangsa Palestina sekarang.34

Ayat berikut ini menggambarkan bagaimana Firaun membunuh orang-orang yang tak berdaya:

Dan (ingatlah), ketika Musa berkata kepada kaumnya: "Ingatlah nikmat Allah atasmu ketika Dia menyelamatkan kamu dari (Fir'aun dan) pengikut-pengikutnya, mereka menyiksa kamu dengan siksa yang pedih, mereka menyembelih anak-anak laki-lakimu, membiarkan hidup anak-anak perempuanmu; dan pada yang demikian itu ada cobaan yang besar dari Tuhanmu". Dan (ingatlah juga), tatkala Tuhanmu memaklumkan; "Sesungguhnya jika kamu bersyukur, pasti Kami akan menambah (nikmat) kepadamu, dan jika kamu mengingkari (nikmat-Ku), maka sesungguhnya azab-Ku sangat pedih".(Qur'an, 14:6-7)

Dengan bantuan Allah, Bani Israil akhirnya keluar dari kekejaman dan tidak berprikemanusiaannya Firaun. Pada masa sekarang, radikalisme Israel ada pada kedudukan Firaun dan menganjurkan kekejaman. Orang-orang Palestina harus mengikuti himbauan Allah kepada Bani Israel pada saat itu: Sabarlah, percayalah kepada Allah, dan tetaplah di atas jalan-Nya yang benar.

SEORANG TENTARA ISRAEL MELUKISKAN KEKEJAMAN

Serangan Libanon pertama saya adalah pada tahun 1986. Saya wajib militer Israel berusia 19 tahun, dan peleton penerjun payung saya dikirim ke suatu desa yang saya lupa namanya…. Kami mendobrak pintu sebuah rumah, memeriksa keluarga di dalamnya, dan mengeluarkan seorang pria berusia separuh baya. Setelah menutup matanya dan mengikat tangannya di belakang punggungnya, kami membawanya ke sebuah jalanan sepi, memaksanya berlutut, dan menaruh senjata di kepalanya, mengancam menembak jika ia tidak bicara. Seorang petugas perdamaian PBB muncul dan mengakhiri insiden itu, tapi masih akan ada lagi yang terjadi.

Hari berikutnya kami melakukan hukuman mati yang tidak masuk akal atas seorang anak Libanon berusia 10 tahun. Kami memaksa keluarganya masuk dapur dan menyeretnya ke samping kebun. Letnan saya memasukkan kepalanya ke dalam kotoran dan saya memukulkan senapan saya ke kepalanya.

Meskipun tentara itu mengancam menembak kepalanya, bocah itu tidak menjawab, tetap membisu…

Saya adalah prajurit pindahan dari satuan lain, dan rekan saya lebih terbiasa dengan aksi seperti ini… Orang desa yang sudah tua, wanita, dan anak kecil dijebak di rumah mereka, diperintah menjalani jam malam 24 jam. Para lelaki mereka dikumpulkan di suatu ruangan terpusat, mata ditutup, dan diseret untuk disidik.

Kebrutalan tak bertanggung jawab ini tak terbatas pada prajurit berpendapatan rendah. Omri, anak seorang pejabat terpandang, suka menembak dengan memberondong orang-orang desa yang mengintip melalui pintu-pintu… Selama serangan bulan-bulan pertama, Israel membunuh 12.000 hingga 15.000 orang dan kehilangan 360. Meskipun korban di pihak Israel itu adalah para prajurit, sebagian besar korban mereka justru orang-orang sipil.

James Ron, penulis artikel ini, asisten profesor sosiologi pada John Hopkins University, adalah seorang penyidik lapangan sebuah kelompok hak asasi manusia. (Boston Globe, 25 Mei 2000)

Pembantaian oleh Israel

Beberapa pembantaian yang dilakukan oleh tentara Israel dan organisasi teroris (seperti Haganah, Irgun, dan Stern) antara 1948 dan 1982 akan digambarkan dalam halaman-halaman berikut ini. Tidak ada satu pun pembantaian itu yang ditujukan kepada kelompok-kelompok bersenjata. Sejarah Israel penuh dengan tindak kekerasan atas dan pembantaian orang-orang sipil. Beberapa contoh berikut ini saja sudah cukup: peledakan Hotel King David pada tahun 1946; pembantaian Deir Yassin pada 1948, di mana penduduk desa yang tak berdosa disiksa dan dibunuh; pembantaian tak berprikemanusiaan di desa Qibya pada 1958; pembantaian di kamp pengungsian Sabra dan Shatilla, yang dilakukan oleh milisi Libanon Kristen pro-Israel di bawah dukungan Ariel Sharon dan mengakibatkan hampir 3000 kematian; serangan atas Mesjid Aqsa pada 1990, yang menyebabkan 11 kematian dan hampir 800 orang luka-luka, pembantaian di Mesjid Ibrahim pada tahun 1994 selama sholat Subuh; pembantaian di kamp pengungsian Qana pada 1996; dan pengepungan terowongan oleh 4000 tentara pada 1999 adalah beberapa contoh saja dari kekerasan ini.

Mereka yang tewas dalam serangan ini adalah orang-orang tak berdosa yang tidak punya alat-alat untuk melindungi diri mereka sendiri. Pembantaian yang akan disebutkan di halaman-halaman berikut hanyalah contoh dari kekejaman dan teror yang telah berlanjut dari tahun 1947 hingga sekarang. Meski angka-angka ini penting artinya untuk menunjukkan besarnya penindasan Zionis, namun angka-angka tersebut bahkan tak bisa memulai penggambaran akibatnya yang mengerikan, khususnya karena penindasan itu masih berlangsung. Memang, hampir setiap hari semenjak 1947 selalu saja ada laporan berita tentang serangan, kematian, penyiksaan, dan kekerasan dari daerah-daerah yang diduduki oleh Israel. Sebagai contoh, ketika semua orang yang meninggal semenjak Oktober 2000 disebutkan, jumlahnya mencapai hampir 2000. (Angka ini tidak termasuk orang-orang yang terbunuh dalam Operasi Defensive Shield.) Dengan kata lain, orang-orang Israel melanjutkan pembunuhan harian ini dalam suatu cara sistematis.

Beberapa Contoh Setengah Abad Pemerintahan Teror Israel

Pembantaian King David, 1946: 92 tewas

Serangan ini dilakukan oleh organisasi teroris Irgun dan sepengetahuan David Ben Gurion, pejabat teras Zionis dalam masa itu. Sejumlah total 92 orang, terdiri atas orang Inggris, Palestina, dan Yahudi terbunuh dan 45 orang terluka parah.

Sembilan puluh dua orang, termasuk beberapa orang Inggris, terbunuh dalam sebuah serangan yang dilancarkan teroris Zionis atas Hotel King David pada tahun 1946.

Pembantaian Baldat Al-Shaikh, 1947: 60 tewas

Enam puluh orang Palestina yang tengah terlelap di tempat tidurnya, di antara mereka para wanita, anak-anak, dan orang tua, kehilangan nyawanya karena serangan ini, yang dilakukan oleh 150-200 teroris Zionis. Serangan dimulai pada pukul 2 pagi dan berlangsung selama 4 jam.

Pembantaian Yehida, 1947: 13 tewas

Di Yehida, salah satu pemukiman pertama Zionis, para penyerang yang berpakaian seperti tentara Inggris menembaki orang-orang Islam.

Pembantaian Khisas, 1947: 10 tewas

Dua mobil yang dipenuhi anggota-anggota Haganah memasuki desa Khisas di perbatasan Libanon dan melakukan penembakan pada seseorang yang melintasi jalan mereka.

Pembantaian Qazaza, 1947: 5 anak-anak tewas

Lima anak kehilangan jiwanya dalam peristiwa ini, ketika teroris Zionis menembaki sebuah rumah dengan membabi buta.

Pembantaian Hotel Semirami, 1948: 19 tewas

Dalam sebuah operasi yang ditujukan untuk membuat orang-orang Palestina merasa tidak aman dan memaksa mereka keluar dari Yerusalem, sekelompok teroris Zionis yang dipimpin oleh presiden Israel pertama, David Ben Gurion, meledakkan Hotel Semirami. Sembilan belas orang terbunuh.

Pembantaian Naser al-Din, 1948

Sekelompok teroris Zionis berpakaian tentara Arab menembaki penduduk kota yang meninggalkan rumahnya untuk menyambut mereka. Hanya 40 orang yang lolos dari pembunuhan ini, dan desa tersebut terhapus dari peta.

Pembantaian Tantura, 1948: 200 tewas

Tantura, sekarang rumah dari sekitar 1500 pemukim Yahudi, adalah sebuah tempat pembantaian besar-besaran atas orang-orang Islam pada tahun 1948. Sejarawan Israel Teddy Katz menggambarkan serangan ini sebagai berikut: “Dari jumlahnya, ini benar-benar salah satu pembantaian yang terbesar."

Pembantaian Mesjid Dahmash, 1948: 100 tewas

Batalalion Komando Israel ke-89 yang dipimpin oleh Moshe Dayan, yang nantinya menjadi Menteri Pertahanan, mengumumkan kepada penduduk desa bahwa mereka akan aman hanya jika mereka berkumpul di mesjid. Akan tetapi, 100 orang Islam yang mencari tempat perlindungan tersebut justru dibantai di sana. Para penduduk yang ketakutan di Lydda dan Ramla meninggalkan tanahnya. Sekitar 60.000 orang Palestina keluar dari negerinya, dan 350 orang lebih tewas dalam perjalanan karena keadaan kesehatan yang parah.

Pembantaian Dawayma, 1948: 100 tewas

Serangan ini merupakan pembantaian terbesar yang dilakukan Israel. Sebagian besar yang terbunuh tengah berada di mesjid untuk melakukan sholat Jum’at. Wanita-wanita Palestina diperkosa selama serangan ini, sementara rumah-rumahnya diledakkan dengan dinamit, padahal ada orang di dalamnya.

Pembantaian Houla, 1948: 85 tewas

Tentara Israel memaksa 85 orang untuk masuk ke dalam sebuah rumah, kemudian rumah itu dibakar. Setelah itu, sebagian besar warga yang merasa takut melarikan diri ke Beirut. Dari 12.000 penduduk asli Houla, hanya 1200 orang yang tersisa.

Pembantaian Salha, 1948: 105 tewas

Setelah penduduk suatu desa dipaksa masuk ke mesjid, orang-orang tersebut dibakar hingga tak seorang pun yang tersisa hidup-hidup.

ORANG-ORANG PALESTINA TENGAH DIHABISI

Kekejaman yang dialami oleh rakyat Palestina telah berlanjut selama lebih dari 50 tahun. Di Palestina hari ini, hampir mustahil menemukan sebuah keluarga yang tidak kehilangan puteranya karena peluru Israel. Lainnya ada pula yang lumpuh atau cacat, seperti terlihat di foto-foto ini.

Pembantaian Deir Yassin, 1948: 254 tewas

Kenyataan bahwa agenda dunia dikendalikan oleh media Barat, yang sebagian besarnya memihak Israel, kadangkala mencegah peristiwa-peristiwa di Israel untuk diungkap. Namun, beberapa kejadian seperti kekerasan dan kekejaman telah didokumentasikan secara terperinci oleh lembaga-lembaga internasional. Inilah salah satu dari kejadian-kejadian itu, yang dilakukan oleh organisasi teroris Irgun dan Stem.

Pada malam 9 April, 1948, penduduk Deir Yassin terbangun karena perintah “mengosongkan desa” yang disuarakan oleh pengeras suara. Sebelum mereka mengerti apa yang tengah terjadi, mereka telah dibantai. Penyelidikan Palang Merah dan PBB yang dilakukan berturut-turut di tempat kejadian menunjukkan bahwa rumah-rumahnya pertama-tama dibakar lalu semua orang yang mencoba melarikan diri dari api ditembak mati. Selama serangan ini, wanita-wanita hamil dicabik perutnya dengan bayonet, hidup-hidup. Anggota tubuh korban dipotong-potong, lalu anak-anak dihantam dan diperkosa. Selama pembantaian Deir Yassin, 52 orang anak-anak disayat-sayat tubuhnya di depan mata ibunya, lalu mereka dibunuh sedang kepalanya dipenggal. Lebih dari 60 orang wanita terbunuh lalu tubuh-tubuh mereka dipotong-potong.35 Salah satu wanita yang melarikan diri hidup-hidup menceritakan pembantaian massal yang ia saksikan sebagai berikut:

Saya melihat seorang tentara memegangi saudara perempuan saya, Saliha al-Halabi, yang sedang hamil sembilan bulan. Ia menyorongkan sebuah senjata mesin pada lehernya, lalu memberondongkan seluruh pelurunya kepada saudara saya. Lalu ia beralih menjadi seorang jagal, ia mengambil sebuah pisau lalu menyayat perutnya hingga terburai lalu mengeluarkan janinnya yang telah mati dengan pisau Nazinya yang tak berprikemanusiaan.36

Tidak puas hanya dengan pembantian, para teroris lalu mengumpulkan seluruh perempuan dewasa dan remaja yang masih hidup, menanggalkan seluruh pakaian mereka, membaringkan mereka di mobil terbuka, membawa mereka sepanjang jalan daerah Yahudi di Yerusalem dalam keadaan telanjang. Jacques Reynier, perwakilan Palang Merah Palestina pada saat itu, yang melihat potongan-potongan mayat selama kunjungannya ke Deir Yassin pada hari serangan itu, hanya bisa berkata: “Keadaannya sudah mengerikan."37

Selama diadakannya serangan, 280 orang Islam, di antara mereka wanita dan anak-anak, mula-mula diarak di sepanjang jalan lalu ditembak seperti menjalani hukuman mati. Sebagian besar wanita yang masih remaja diperkosa sebelum ditembak mati, sedangkan remaja pria dikebiri kemaluannya.38

Orang-orang yang tiba di tempat pembantaian Deir Yassin hari berikutnya menemukan pemandangan yang menggetarkan: tubuh-tubuh tak berkepala, anak-anak yang dipotong-potong badannya, dan perut wanita yang terburai.

Harus dijelaskan bahwa para teroris yang melakukan pembantaian massal ini bukanlah anggota organisasi radikal yang bertindak di luar hukum atau menentang kendali pemerintah; justru mereka itu dikendalikan langsung oleh pemerintah Israel. Pembantaian Deir Yassin dilakukan oleh kelompok Irgun dan Stern, di bawah kepemimpinan langsung Menachem Begin, yang di kemudian hari menjadi perdana menteri Israel.

Begin menggambarkan operasi tak berprikemanusiaan ini, yang hanyalah salah satu contoh dari kebijakan resmi kebrutalan Israel, dalam kata-kata: "pembantaian ini tidak hanya bisa dibenarkan, justru, tidak akan ada negara Israel tanpa ‘kemenangan’ di Deir Yassin."39 Para Zionis menjadikan serangan seperti itu untuk menteror orang-orang Palestina dan mengusir mereka dari tanah mereka sehingga imigran Yahudi punya tempat untuk hidup. Israel Eldad, seorang pemimpin Zionis yang terkenal, menyatakan hal ini secara terbuka ketika ia berkata: "Jika tidak ada Deir Yassin, setengah juta orang Arab akan tetap tinggal di negara Israel (pada tahun 1948). Negara Israel tidak akan pernah ada."40

Para Zionis menganggap pembersihan etnis seperti ini sebagai hal teramat penting untuk mendirikan negara Israel. Memang operasi-operasi ini, yang dilanjutkan setelah serangan Deir Yassin, menyebabkan banyak orang-orang Palestina meninggalkan tanahnya dan melarikan diri, atau menderita nasib yang sama seperti penduduk Deir Yassin.

Pembantaian di Qibya, 1953: 96 tewas

Serangan Zionis lainnya yang dirancang untuk “mendorong” orang-orang Palestina melarikan diri terjadi di Qibya, suatu desa dengan penduduk 2000 orang di perbatasan Yordania. Penyelidikan lebih lanjut di tempat kejadian yang dilakukan oleh beberapa pengamat dengan jelas mengungkap bagaimana pembantaian terjadi. Pembantaian Qibya, yang terjadi pada 13 Oktober 1953, meliputi penghancuran 40 rumah dan pembunuhan 96 orang sipil, sebagian besar di antara mereka wanita dan anak-anak. Unit “101” ini dipimpin oleh Ariel Sharon, yang nantinya juga menjadi salah satu perdana menteri Israel. Sekitar 600 tentaranya mengepung desa itu dan memutuskan hubungannya dengan seluruh desa Arab lainnya. Begitu memasukinya pada pukul 4 pagi, para teroris Zionis mulai secara terencana memusnahkan rumah-rumah dan membunuh penduduk-penduduknya. Sharon yang kalem, yang langsung memimpin serangan tersebut, mengumumkan pernyataan berikut setelah pembantaian: “Perintah telah dilaksanakan dengan sempurna: Qibya akan menjadi contoh untuk semua orang."41

Dr. Yousif Haikal, duta besar Yordania untuk PBB pada saat itu, menerangkan pembantaian ini dalam laporannya kepada Dewan Keamanan:

Orang-orang Israel memasuki desa dan secara terencana membunuh seluruh penghuni rumah, dengan menggunakan senjata-senjata otomatis, granat, dan bom bakar; lalu mendinamit rumah yang ada penghuninya… Empat puluh rumah, sekolah desa, dan sebuah waduk dihancurkan. Dua puluh dua ternak dibunuh dan enam toko dijarah.42

Jurnal Katolik terkenal The Sign, yang diterbitkan di Amerika Serikat, juga melaporkan pembantaian massal yang dilakukan selama serangan ini. Editor Ralph Gorman menerangkan pemikirannya sebagai berikut: “Teror menjadi sebuah senjata politik Nazi. NamunNazi tidak pernah menggunakan teror dengan cara yang lebih berdarah dingin dan tanpa alasan seperti yang dilakukan Israel dalam pembantaian di Qibya."43

Orang-orang yang kemudian datang ke tempat pembantaian ini menyaksikan pemandangan yang mengerikan. Sebagian besar mayat mengalami luka tembak di belakang kepala, dan banyak yang tanpa kepala. Bersama orang-orang yang tewas di bawah reruntuhan rumah mereka, banyak wanita-wanita dan anak-anak tak berdosa yang juga dibunuh secara brutal.

Pembantaian Kafr Qasem, 1956: 49 tewas

In the Kafr Qasem attack, Israeli soldiers once again murdered innocent babies.

Serangan di Kafr Qasem, ketika 49 orang tak bersalah, tanpa memandang wanita atau anak-anak, tua atau muda, dibunuh dengan brutal, terjadi pada 29 Oktober 1956. Pada hari itu juga, Israel melancarkan serangannya atas Mesir. Tentara garda depan Israel melakukan pembersihan sekitar pukul 4 sore, dan menyatakan bahwa mereka telah mengamankan perbatasan. Mereka berkata pada pejabat setempat di kota-kota perbatasan bahwa jam malam untuk kota tersebut mulai hari itu akan dimulai pukul 5 sore, bukan 6 sore seperti biasanya. Salah satu kota tersebut adalah Kafr Qasem, di dekat pemukiman Yahudi di Betah Tekfa.

Para penduduk kota baru diberitahu tentang jam malam tersebut pada pukul 4.45 sore. Pejabat setempat memberi tahu tentara Israel bahwa sebagian besar penduduk kota bekerja di luar kota, dan begitu mereka kembali dari kerjanya, mereka tidak mungkin mengetahui tentang perubahan tersebut. Pada saat yang sama, tentara Israel mulai mendirikan barikade di jalan masuk kota. Sementara itu, orang-orang yang bekerja di luar kota pun mulai kembali ke rumahnya. Kelompok pertama segera mencapai perbatasan kota. Apa yang terjadi berikutnya diceritakan oleh saksi mata Abdullah Samir Bedir:

Kami mencapai pintu masuk desa sekitar pukul 4.55 sore. Kami tiba-tiba dihadang oleh unit garda depan yang terdiri atas 12 tentara dan seorang pejabat, yang semuanya diangkut sebuah truk tentara. Kami memberi salam kepada pejabat dalam bahasa Ibrani, dengan berkata “Shalom Katsin”yang berarti “salam untuk Bapak,” tapi tak ada tanggapan. Dia kemudian menanyai kami dalam Bahasa Arab: “Apakah kalian bahagia?” lalu kami menjawab “Ya.” Para tentara mulai keluar dari truk dan sang pejabat memerintahkan kami untuk berbaris. Lalu ia menyerukan perintah ini kepada tentaranya: “Laktasour Otem,” yang berarti “Bereskan mereka!” Para tentara mulai menembak…44

Bedir, yang melarikan diri dari percobaan pembantaian yang mengerikan ini dengan berjudi antara hidup dan mati, sebenarnya bukanlah satu-satunya saksi mata kekejaman ini. Mulai saat itu, tentara Israel menghentikan setiap kendaraan yang mencoba memasuki kota itu dan menembak mati orang-orang di dalamnya. Di antara mereka ada anak laki-laki berusia 15 dan 16 tahun, remaja putri, dan wanita hamil. Orang-orang yang mendengarkan keributan dan keluar melihat apa yang terjadi ditembak karena melanggar jam malam begitu mereka melangkah ke luar. Tentara Israel diperintahkan bukan untuk menahan, melainkan menembak mati semua yang melanggar jam malam.

Kejadian ini, yang dilaporkan seluruhnya dalam catatan resmi Parlemen Israel, adalah salah satu contoh yang paling mengejutkan dari kebijakan resmi Israel.

Dan bila dikatakan kepada mereka: Janganlah kamu membuat kerusakan
di muka bumi, mereka menjawab: "Sesungguhnya kami orang-orang yang mengadakan perbaikan." Ingatlah, sesungguhnya mereka itulah orang-orang yang membuat kerusakan, tetapi mereka tidak sadar.
(Qur'an, 2:11-12)

Pembantaian Khan Yunis, 1956: 275 tewas

Tentara Israel yang menyerang kamp pengungsi di Khan Yunis membunuh 275 orang. Pejabat PBB yang melakukan penyelidikan di tempat kejadian menemukan korban-korban yang telah ditembak di belakang kepalanya setelah tangannya diikat.45

Pembantaian di Kota Gaza, 1956: 60 tewas

Dalam serangan ini, para Zionis membunuh 60 orang, termasuk wanita dan anak-anak.

Pembantaian Fakhani, 1981: 150 tewas

Akibat serangan udara Israel atas daerah Libanon, 150 orang tewas dan 600 luka-luka.46

Kamp pengungsian Khan Yunis telah menjadi sasaran bom Israel semenjak hari pendiriannya. Hampir 130.000 orang Palestina tinggal di dalam atau di dekat bangunan-bangunan runtuh.

TIME, 7 Maret 1994

Pada tahun 1994 Orang-orang Yahudi fanatik menyerang Mesjid Ibrahimi selama waktu sholat, membunuh 40 orang dan melukai seratus lainnya. Peristiwa ini menjadi sampul depan majalah Time.

Pembantaian di Mesjid Ibrahimi, 1994: 50 tewas

Pada hari Jum’at, 25 Februari 1994, suatu pembantaian mengerikan terjadi di Palestina. Dalam sebuah serangan yang dilakukan oleh seorang Yahudi Zionis atas umat Islam yang tengah sholat Jum’at di Mesjid Ibrahimi, lebih dari 50 orang Islam tewas dan hampir 300 orang luka-luka. Beberapa orang yang terluka kemudian tewas karena luka yang dideritanya.

Pembantaian ini dilakukan oleh seorang Yahudi yang tinggal di pemukiman Yahudi Kiryat Arba di Hebron. Sang teroris juga menjadi anggota cadangan di angkatan bersenjata Israel dan anggota sebuah organisasi teroris Zionis. Sumber-sumber di Israel melaporkan bahwa ia mengenakan seragam militer selama serangan tersebut.

Penyerang menyusup ke dalam mesjid dan bersembunyi di belakang sebuah tiang sewaktu orang Islam melaksanakan sholat Subuh. Ketika mereka tengah rukuk bersama, ia memberondong mereka dengan sebuah senapan mesin. Menurut laporan saksi mata, ia tidak melakukannya sendiri, ia hanya menarik picunya saja. Begitu senjatanya kosong, temannya mengganti dengan yang baru.

Setelah kejadian ini, tentara Israel mengepung mesjid itu dan mencegah wartawan mendekatinya. Begitu banyak orang yang tewas ketika para tentara ini menembaki orang-orang Islam Palestina yang berdemonstrasi di sekitar mesjid untuk memprotes serangan tersebut.47

Pembantaian Qana, 1996: 109 tewas

Lebih dari 100 orang, sebagian besar wanita dan anak-anak, kehilangan jiwanya di kamp pengungsi Qana ketika mereka dibom oleh angkatan udara Israel. Pemandangan mengerikan karena pembantaian ini, termasuk anak-anak yang dipenggal kepalanya, tidak akan pernah terlupakan. Suatu tim pemeriksa dari PBB memastikan bahwa pembantaian ini disengaja.

Pembantaian Sabra dan Shatilla

"Saya harus membawa bayi-bayi dan menaruh mereka di dalam peti-peti berisi air untuk menghindari api. Ketika saya melihat mereka setengah jam kemudian, mereka masih membakar tempat itu. Bahkan di kamar mayat pun, mereka masih melakukan pembakaran selama berjam-jam.” Demikian Dr. Amal Shamaa dari rumah sakit Barbir, setelah amunisi fosfor Israel dibakar Beirut Barat, 29 Juli 1982.48

Selama pembantaian di Qana, kekuatan pendudukan Israel menganggap bayi-bayi yang tengah terlelap pun sebagai musuh mereka dan membunuh mereka tanpa ragu.

FOTO-FOTO YANG TAK TERLUPAKAN

Foto-foto orang yang dibantai yang terjadi di Qana ini mencerminkan kenyataan sebenarnya kekejaman yang terjadi di Palestina.

Operasi teroris Zionis untuk menakut-nakuti orang Palestina dan mengusir mereka dari tanah mereka setelah PD II mengakibatkan kematian ribuan orang-orang tak berdosa. Namun, serangan Israel atas kamp pengungsi Sabra dan Shatilla selama penyerangan Libanon 1982 akan tercatat dalam sejarah sebagai salah satu tindakan pembantaian etnis terburuk yang pernah dilakukan oleh Zionis. Selama serangan oleh kelompok Phalangis Kristen Libanon, dengan dukungan dan arahan tentara-tentara Israel, lebih dari 3000 orang, sebagian besar wanita dan anak-anak, terbunuh. Penelitian dan penyelidikan setelah itu memperlihatkan bahwa Ariel Sharon, yang saat itu menteri pertahanan Israel dan sekarang perdana menteri, bertanggung jawab atas operasi tersebut. Karena serangan berdarah ini, sekarang pun ia masih dikenal sebagai “Tukang Jagal dari Libanon."

Pembantaian mengerikan di kamp pengungsi Sabra dan Shatilla dilakukan di bawah perintah dan arahan Ariel Sharon, yang kemudian menjadi Menteri Pertahanan dan sekarang Perdana Menteri.

Wartawan dan ahli Timur Tengah Robert Fisk melaporkan pemandangan mengerikan yang ia lihat segera setelah serangan tersebut dalam sebuah artikel yang ditulis setelah Sharon terpilih sebagai perdana menteri:

Bagi setiap orang yang berada di kamp pengungsian Sabra dan Shatilla di Beirut pada 18 September 1982, namanya (Ariel Sharon) sama artinya dengan penjagalan, dengan mayat-mayat yang membengkak, dengan wanita-wanita yang terburai isi perutnya, dengan mayat-mayat bayi, dengan pemerkosaan, dan penjarahan dan pembunuhan… Bahkan ketika saya berjalan di atas jalan-jalan yang berbau busuk ini, lebih dari 18 tahun setelahnya… hantu-hantu masih bergentayangan. Di sana, di sisi jalan yang mengarah ke mesjid Sabra, berbaring Tn. Nouri, 90 tahun, berjanggut putih, berpiama dengan topi wol kecil yang masih melekat di kepalanya dan sebuah tongkat di sisinya. Saya menemukannya di atas tumpukan sampah, di punggungnya… Masih di jalan yang sama, saya berjalan melintasi dua orang wanita yang duduk tegak dengan otak tercerai berai, di samping tungku dapur… salah satu wanita itu kelihatannya lambungnya pun terburai. Beberapa meter jauhnya, saya menemukan bayi-bayi pertama, sudah menghitam karena membusuk, bergelimpangan di atas jalanan seperti sampah… lalat-lalat mengerubung berlomba-lomba di antara mayat-mayat dan muka-muka kami, di antara darah kering dan catatan wartawan, tangan-tangan dengan arloji masih berdetak di pergelangan yang mati. Saya naik merangkak ke atas benteng tanah, sebuah bulldozer yang telah ditinggalkan berdiri di dekatnya dengan perasaan bersalah, hanya untuk merasakan, bahwa begitu saya berada di atas gundukan itu, ia bergelayutan di bawah saya. Dan saya melihat ke bawah untuk menemukan muka-muka, siku-siku, mulut-mulut, kaki-kaki seorang perempuan menonjol ke luar dari dalam tanah. Saya harus berpegangan pada bagian-bagian tubuh ini untuk memanjat ke sisi lain. Lalu di sana ada wanita cantik, kepalanya dikelilingi oleh cahaya kancing-kancing baju, darahnya masih mengalir dari sebuah lubang di punggungnya.49

Dalam artikel lain, Fisk menggambarkan apa yang ia lihat ketika mengunjungi rumah-rumah sakit tempat orang-orang terluka tengah dirawat: “Apa yang kita lihat di sini tidak akan mudah kita lupakan. Mengunjungi rumah sakit Barbir berarti melihat apa yang dilakukan berondongan senjata pada daging."50

PEMBANTAIAN SABRA DAN SHATILLA

Kekejaman yang dialami orang-orang tak bersalah dan mengenaskan ini haruslah menjadi peringatan bagi ideologi kepemimpinan Israel. Sebagian besar wanita yang terbunuh itu telah diperkosa. Para wanita hamil dirobek perutnya sehingga bayi-bayinya bisa direnggut keluar. Anak-anak sekitar 3 atau 4 tahun dibunuh di depan orang-orang tuanya. Kebanyakan lelaki dipotong telinga dan hidungnya sebelum ditembak mati.

Sebuah laporan berita tentang pembantaian muncul pada surat kabar Prancis Le Monde pada 13 Februari 2001. Nihad Hamad, yang berhasil selamat, sekarang berusia 42 tahun, menggambarkan apa yang telah terjadi:

Angkatan bersenjata Israel menghabiskan Rabu malam dan Kamis pagi mengepung kamp tersebut. Mereka ingin menutup sisi timurnya. Para mujahidin kami telah pergi. Di sini tak ada yang tertinggal selain beberapa anak berumur 15 atau 16… Pada Kamis malam, pengeboman terjadi dua kali. Kami sadar bahwa senapan ringan kami tidak akan ada gunanya. Setiap orang di bangunan ini adalah pengungsi. Setiap orang merasa takut. Orang-orang lanjut usia dari kelompok ini, orang-orang yang menjadi panutan, memutuskan untuk pergi menemui orang-orang Israel dan menyatakan pada mereka bahwa kamp akan menyerah. Dengan bendera putih di tangan mereka mereka masuk ke mobil dan pergi ke luar. Mereka tidak pernah kembali. Beberapa lelaki muda pergi dengan senjatanya dan pergi ke arah yang sama. Mereka pun tidak pernah kembali lagi, demikian pula orang-orang yang pergi mencari mereka. Kemudian kami sadar bahwa lebih baik kami meninggalkan tempat ini segera… Ratusan orang melarikan diri ke suatu tempat persembunyian yang sama di bagian utara kamp. Begitu banyak di antara kami yang hampir mati lemas. Ketika fajar menyingsing kesunyian kematian di mana-mana; tempat ini adalah sebuah kota hantu sekarang. Pengeboman pun berhenti. Satu kali kadang-kadang kami bisa mendengar satu letusan senjata. Kemudian, dari arah mesjid, jeritan seorang wanita memecah kesunyian. Rambutnya diacak-acak, bajunya yang koyak penuh darah. Ia seperti seorang yang hilang ingatan. Di kakinya ada anak-anak yang tenggorokannya telah digorok… Mereka berperilaku brutal, dan mereka menggunakan pisaunya dan alat-alat potong lain untuk melakukan pembunuhan dalam keheningan. Setelah para milisi menyelesaikan pekerjaannya di kamp tersebut, mereka menyelesaikan pekerjaan kotornya di Rumah Sakit Gaza. Mereka menyeret para dokter, perawat, dan yang terluka ke luar rumah sakit dan membunuh mereka. Jika orang-orang yang hilang dimasukkan, kita tahu bahwa antara 3000 dan 3.500 orang telah terbunuh.51

Sharon dikenal oleh orang-orang Arab dan seluruh dunia sebagai “Penjagal dari Libanon,” dan menunjukkan kekejamannya di segala kesempatan.

Pemandangan mengerikan ini adalah pekerjaan Ariel Sharon, yang dikenal dengan pernyataannya seperti “Orang-orang Arab mengenal saya, dan saya mengenal mereka” serta melalui penggambarannya tentang orang Arab dengan istilah menyakitkan, seperti “hama." 52 Setelah Perang 1967, Sharon menyebabkan 160.000 orang Palestina meninggalkan Yerusalem Timur dan menjadi pengungsi. Teknik hukumannya meliputi pengeboman rumah, pembongkaran kamp pengungsi, dan penahanan ratusan pemuda tanpa alasan lalu menyiksa mereka. Ketika Sharon menjadi penanggung jawab keamanan di Jalur Gaza, ratusan orang Palestina dibunuh, ribuan ditahan dan diusir dari Palestina, dan di Gaza saja 2000 rumah telah dihancurkan dan 16.000 orang diusir untuk kedua kalinya. Pada saat pembantaian Sabra dan Shatilla, 14.000 orang (termasuk 13.000 orang sipil tak bersenjata) meninggal di tempat itu dalam beberapa minggu, dan sekitar setengah juta orang kehilangan tempat tinggal.

Kekejaman dan kebrutalan yang digambarkan di sini terjadi terus menerus di tanah Palestina selama 50 tahun terakhir. Bahkan, contoh-contoh yang disebutkan di atas hanyalah pembantaian ketika banyak orang-orang Palestina kehilangan jiwanya dalam satu hari saja. Kejadian yang serupa, di antara banyak lainnya, adalah sebagai berikut: 8 orang di al-Sammou, 1966; 7 orang di Adloun, 1978; 80 orang di Abbasieh, 1979; dan 20 orang di Saida, 1980. Di luar ini, beberapa orang terbunuh atau dibantai setiap hari selama bertahun-tahun. Dan setiap hari rumah-rumah masih saja dihancurkan dan orang-orang masih diusir dari tanah air mereka. Jelas, tujuan akhir Israel adalah untuk menakut-nakuti orang-orang Palestina, mengusir mereka dari tanahnya, dan menundukkan orang Palestina kepada keinginan mereka melalui sebuah kebijakan pembersihan etnis yang terencana.

Seluruh dunia menyaksikan ketika masyarakat ini dibantai, sewaktu mereka menghadapi pembasmian bangsa yang terang-terangan. Karena alasan tertentu, sebagian besar pemerintahan telah dan tetap mengabaikan praktek-praktek brutal dan tak berprikemanusiaan ini dan tidak menjatuhkan sanksi apa pun selain dari “mengutuk” pada saat tertentu saja.

Dalam karya klasiknya World Orders: Old and New, pengamat Timur Tengah Noam Chomsky menggambarkan pandangan pemerintah Israel tentang orang Palestina dan bagaimana ahli strategi Amerika menilai pandangan ini:

Tentang orang-orang Palestina, pejabat AS tidak punya alasan untuk mempertanyakan pendapat ahli pemerintahan Israel pada tahun 1948, bahwa para pengungsi harus bercampur dengan penduduk di negeri lain atau “akan diremukkan”: “beberapa di antara mereka akan mati dan sebagian besar mereka akan kembali ke debu dan sampah masyarakat, dan bergabung dengan kelompok termiskin di negara-negara Arab.” Oleh karena itu, tak perlu menyusahkan diri karena mereka. Penilaian seperti ini tetap berlaku hingga hari ini, bahkan menjadi kenyataan sewaktu kejadian-kejadian tersebut terungkap.53

Ramalan pejabat berwenang di Amerika dan Israel telah terwujud hari ini. Bahkan, kebijakan kekerasan dan intimidasi atas warga Palestina yang dilakukan selama masa pendirian Israel dan tahun-tahun pertama tetap tak mereda setelahnya.

Orang-orang Islam Palestina menghadapi cobaan dan kejahatan yang serupa seperti yang dialami oleh umat Islam sepanjang sejarah. Dalam Al-Qur'an, Allah mengingatkan orang-orang beriman tentang suatu masa (Bani Israil) mengenai kekerasan Fir’aun:

Dan (ingatlah) ketika Kami selamatkan kamu dari (Fir'aun) dan pengikut-pengikutnya; mereka menimpakan kepadamu siksaan yang seberat-beratnya, mereka menyembelih anak-anakmu yang laki-laki dan membiarkan hidup anak-anakmu yang perempuan. Dan pada yang demikian itu terdapat cobaan-cobaan yang besar dari Tuhanmu. (Qur'an, 2:49)

Jelaslah, Allah membantu orang-orang yang sabar, dan berdasarkan hukum-Nya, keselamatan selalu dinikmati orang-orang beriman yang benar, meskipun jumlah mereka sedikit, lemah, atau tertindas. Namun, kita juga harus mengetahui bahwa cobaan ini bukan hanya untuk orang-orang Islam di Palestina; Bahkan, cobaan ini semestinya dirasakan semua orang yang menyaksikan atau mengetahui kekejaman ini. Ini karena siapa pun dan bagaimana pun keadaannya, orang-orang Islam berkewajiban membantu orang-orang yang dizalimi dan tertindas. Dan pertolongan terbesar yang bisa mereka berikan adalah mengatasi kekejaman ini dari akarnya. Dengan kata lain, bantuan terbesar yang bisa diberikan manusia kepada orang-orang Palestina yang terus berjuang untuk kehidupan mereka di tengah-tengah kekacauan dan kesulitan yang terus terjadi adalah melakukan perjuangan pemikiran melawan paham dasar Zionisme: sikap Darwinistis Sosial, yang menyebabkan perpecahan, kekacauan, dan kekerasan.

27- Mark Mazower, "Sharon Should Surrender to History," The Financial Times, 25 Mei 2001.
28- Roger Garaudy, The Case of Israel: A Study of Political Zionism, Shorouk International, hlm. 75
29- Garaudy, The Case of Israel, hlm. 76.
30- Garaudy, The Case of Israel, hlm. 69-70, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
31- Davar, Juni 9, 1979.
32- Dr. Hamdan Badr, The Role of The Hagana Organization in the Establishment of Israel (Amman: Dar al-Jalil lil-Nashr wal-Dirasat, 1985), hlm. 303, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
33- Flora Lewis, "Israel Defiles Itself with These Assassinations of Palestinians," International Herald Tribune, Januari 12, 2001, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
34-Uri Avnery, "The Murder of Arafat," http://www.mediamonitors.net/uri64.html
35- Massacres Committed by the Jews in Palestine, www.hatedbooks.com/book/2.htm.
36- Arafat Hijazi, Deir Yassin: The Roots and Dimensions of the Crime in Zionist Thought, hlm. 63
37- Massacres Committed by the Jews in Palestine, www.hatedbooks.com/book/2.htm.
38- Lemi Brenner, The Iron Wall: Zionist Revisionism from Jabotinsky to Shamir (London: Zed Books, 1984), hlm. 141-143).
39- Palestinian History, http://www.nilemedia.com/Topics/History/
40- Israel Eldad, "On the Spirit That Was Revealed in the People," De'ot, Winter 1968, as quoted in Davis and Mezvinsky (eds.), Documents from Israel (1967-1973), hlm. 186-7, tanda penegasan ditambahkan
41- The Memoirs of Ariel Sharon, trans. Antoine Abir (Beirut: Maktabat Bisan, 1991), hlm. 110..
42- Massacres Committed by the Jews in Palestine, www.hatedbooks.com/book/2.htm, tanda penegasan ditambahkan
43- Massacres Committed by the Jews in Palestine, www.hatedbooks.com/book/2.htm, tanda penegasan ditambahkan
44- Massacres Committed by the Jews in Palestine, www.hatedbooks.com/book/2.htm, tanda penegasan ditambahkan
45- Michael Palumbo, Imperial Israel, (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1990), hlm. 30-32; citing UN General Assembly: Official Record, 11th session supplement.
46- "Israeli Massacres:Details and Numbers," www.ummah.net/unity/palestine/massacres.htm.
47- Ahmet Varol, (http://www.vahdet.com.tr/filistin/dosya2/0358.html).
48- Robert Fisk, Pity the Nation, (London: Andre Deutsch, 1990), hlm. 9.
49- Robert Fisk, "The Legacy of Ariel Sharon," The Independent, Februari 6, 2001, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
50- Fisk, Pity the Nation, hlm. 9.
51- Le Monde, Februari, 13, 2001, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
52- Haithem El-Zabri, "Rivers of Blood: A New Sharon Episode," The Palestine Monitor, no. 2, Februari 2001, tanda penegasan ditambahkan.
53- Noam Chomsky, World Orders: Old and New, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), hlm.204, tanda penegasan ditambahkan

Muhammad

2008-12-27T23:17:00.000-08:00

Muhammad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other persons named Muhammad, see Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation).

A series of articles on Prophet of Islam Muhammad
Life Family tree · In Mecca · In Medina · Conquest of Mecca · The Farewell Sermon · Succession Career Diplomacy · Family · Wives · Military leadership Interactions with Slaves · Jews · Christians Perspectives Muslim (Poetic and Mawlid) · Medieval Christian · Historicity · Criticism · Depictions v • d • e

The name "Muhammad" in traditional Thuluth calligraphy by the hand of Hattat Aziz Efendi.^[1]

Part of a series on Islam
Beliefs
Allah · Oneness of God Muhammad · Other prophets
Practices
Profession of faith · Prayer Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage
Texts and laws
Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism
History and leadership
Timeline of Muslim history Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba Sunni · Shi'a Rashidun caliphs · Shi'a imams
Culture and society
Academics · Animals · Art Calendar · Children Demographics · Festivals Mosques · Philosophy Science · Women Politics · Dawah
Islam and other religions
Christianity · Judaism Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism
See also
Criticism · Islamophobia Glossary of Islamic terms
Islam portal v • d • e

Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh (Arabic: محمّد; Transliteration: Muḥammad;^[2] IPA: [mʊħɑmmæd̪]; pronunciation (help·info); also spelled Mohammed or Muhammed)^[3]^[4]^[5] (ca. 570 Mecca – June 8, 632 Medina),^[6] is the central human figure of the religion of Islam and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of God (Arabic: الله‎ Allāh), the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of prophets of Islam. Muslims consider him the restorer of the uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Noah, Jesus and other prophets of Islam.^[7]^[8]^[9] He was also active as a diplomat, merchant, philosopher, orator, legislator, reformer, military general, and, for Muslims and followers of several other religions, an agent of divine action.^[10]

Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,^[11] he was orphaned at a young age and brought up under the care of his uncle. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Discontented with life in Mecca, he retreated to a cave in the surrounding mountains for meditation and reflection. According to Islamic beliefs it was here, at age 40, in the month of Ramadan, where he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn)^[12] acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.^[13]^[14]^[9]

Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was met with hostility from some Meccan tribes; he and his followers were treated harshly. To escape persecution Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622 CE. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca. In 632 a few months after returning to Medina from his Farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. By the time of his death most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam and he united the tribes of Arabia into a single Muslim religious polity.^[15]^[16]

The revelations (or Ayats, lit. "Signs of God") which Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Qur'an, regarded by Muslims as the “word of God” and around which the religion is based. Besides the Qur'an, Muhammad’s life (sira) and traditions (sunnah) are also upheld by Muslims. They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of Islam with reverence, adding the phrase peace be upon him whenever their names are mentioned.^[17] While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in modern times have been far less so.^[14]^[18] Besides this, his life and deeds have been debated by followers and opponents over the centuries.^[19]

Names and appellations in the Qur'an

The name Muhammad means "Praiseworthy" and occurs four times in the Qur'an.^[20] The Qur'an addresses Muhammad in second person not by his name but by the appellations prophet, messenger, servant of God (‘abd), announcer (bashir), warner (nadhir), reminder (mudhakkir), witness (shahid), bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), one who calls [unto God] (dā‘ī) and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir). Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-muzzammil) in Qur'an 73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir) in Qur'an 74:1. ^[21] In the Qur'an, believers are not to distinguish between the messengers of God and are to believe in all of them (Surah 2:285). God has caused some messengers to excel above others 2:253 and in Surah 33:40 He singles out Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets".^[22] The Qur'an also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad "more praiseworthy" (Arabic: أحمد‎, Surah 61:6).

Sources for Muhammad's life

Nakkaş Osman [c. 1595]. Prophet Muhammad at the Ka'ba, The Life of the Prophet Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul (Inv. 1222/123b).

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad

Muhammad's life is well documented within numerous records in historical texts, although like other premodern historical figures not every detail of his life is known. Because Muhammad is a highly influential historical figure, his life, deeds, and thoughts have been debated by followers and opponents over the centuries, which makes a biography of him difficult to write.^[14]

The most trustworthy source for the historical Muhammad is the Qur'an.^[14] The Qur'an has a few allusions to Muhammad's life,^[23] revealing the salient aspects associated with him.^[19] The Qur'an responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."^[14] In its actual form, the Qur'an is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance.^[24]

Next in importance are the historical works by writers of the third and fourth century of the Muslim era.^[25] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.^[26] The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.^[27]^[23] Another early source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).^[25] Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.^[23] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to "tendential shaping".^[28]

In addition, the hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his death.^[29] Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. They might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience.^[30] Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources.^[31] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.^[32] Finally, there are oral traditions. Although usually discounted by positivist historians, oral tradition plays a major role in the Islamic understanding of Muhammad.^[19]

There are also a few non-Muslim sources that, according to S. A. Nigosian, confirm the existence of Muhammad and are valuable for corroboration of traditional Muslim statements.^[23]

Background

Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia and Jahiliyyah

Approximate locations of some of the important tribes of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of Islam (cities are indicated in white).

The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Thus the Arabian landscape was dotted with towns and cities, two prominent ones being Mecca and Medina.^[33] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. The tribal grouping was thus encouraged by the need to act as a unit. This unity was based on the bond of kinship by blood.^[34] People of Arabia were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly traveling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. The survival of nomads (or bedouins) was also partially dependent on raiding caravans or oases; thus they saw this as no crime.^[35]^[36] Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many of the surrounding tribes.^[33]

In pre-Islamic Arabia gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes and their spirits were associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. There was an important shrine in Mecca (now called the Kaaba) that housed statues of 360 idols of tribal patron deities and was the site of an annual pilgrimage. Aside from these tribal gods, Arabs shared a common belief in a supreme deity Allah (literally "the god"), who was remote from their everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: al-Lāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.^[37] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arab monotheists – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed amongst scholars.^[38]^[39] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.^[40]

Timeline of Muhammad in Mecca
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad in Mecca
c. 569	Death of his father, ʿAbd Allah
c. 570	Possible date of birth, April 26: Mecca
576	Death of Mother
578	Death of Grandfather
c. 583	Takes trading journeys to Syria
c. 595	Meets and marries Khadijah
610	First reports of Qur'anic revelation
c. 610	announcement of Prophethood
c. 613	Begins spreading message of Islam publicly
c. 614	Begins to gather following in Mecca
c. 615	Emigration of Muslims to Ethiopia
616	Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
c. 618	Medinan Civil War
619	Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
619	The year of sorrows: khaddija and Abu Talib die
c. 620	Isra and Mi'raj
622	Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) This box: view • talk • edit

Life

Muhammad in Mecca

Main article: Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570–622) which was divided into two phases, that is before and after declaring the prophecy.

Childhood and early life

See also: Year of the Elephant, Mawlid, and Family tree of Muhammad

Muhammad was born in the month of Rabi' al-awwal in 570. He belonged to the Banu Hashim, one of the prominent families of Mecca, although it seems not to have been prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime.^[14]^[41] Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who had in his army a number of elephants. Recent scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.^[42]

Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.^[43] According to the tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as the desert-life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this tradition.^[44] At the age of six Muhammad lost his mother Amina to illness and he became fully orphaned.^[45] He was subsequently brought up for two years under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. When Muhammad was eight, his grandfather also died. He now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.^[42] According to Watt, because of the general disregard of the guardians in taking care of weak members of the tribes in Mecca in sixth century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."^[46]

While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining experience in the commercial trade, the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan.^[46] According to tradition, when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammed's career as a prophet of God.^[47]

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is hard to separate history from legend.^[46] It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."^[48] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "Al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.^[14]^[11]^[49] His reputation attracted a proposal from Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow in 595. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.^[48]

Beginnings of the Qur'an

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an and Wahy

The cave Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim beliefs, Muhammad received his first revelation.

At some point Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca.^[50]^[51] Islamic tradition holds that during of his visits to Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel began communicating with him in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:^[52]

Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Qur'an 96:1-5)

According to some traditions, upon receiving his first revelations Muhammad was deeply distressed and contemplated throwing himself off the top of a mountain but the spirit moved closer and told him that he has been chosen as a messenger of God. Muhammad returned home and was consoled and reassured by his wife, Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Shia tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him.^[53] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad gave himself up further to prayers and spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: Your lord has not forsaken you nor does he hate [you] (Qur'an 93:1-11).^[54]^[55]

According to Welch these revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.^[14] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.^[56] According to the Qur'an, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Qur'an 38:70, Qur'an 6:19). Sometimes the Qur'an does not explicitly refer to the Judgment day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Qur'an 41:13–16).^[57] Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the divine word and serve God.^[58] Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Qur'an demands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols apart from God or associate other deities with God.^[57]

The key themes of the early Qur'anic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill new-born girls.^[14]

Opposition

See also: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.^[59] She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.^[59] Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Qur'an 26:214).^[60] Most Meccans ignored him and a few mocked him, while others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.^[61]

According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.^[62] However, the Qur'anic exegesis maintains that it began as soon as Muhammad started public preaching.^[63] As the number of followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.^[61] The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused.^[61]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad and his followers.^[14] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of Abu Jahl and a prominent Meccan leader, is famous as the first martyr of Islam, having been killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayya ibn khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.^[64]^[65] Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he belonged to the Banu Hashim clan.^[66]^[67]

Location of Abyssinia (Aksumite Empire).

In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.^[14] Some early traditions^[which?] describe Muhammad's involvement at this time in an episode that has come to be known as the "Story of the Cranes" -- dubbed by some scholars^[which?] as the "Satanic Verses." The account holds that Muhammad pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah, praising them, and appealing for their intercession. According to these accounts, Muhammad later retracted the verses at the behest of Gabriel.^[68] Islamic scholars vigorously objected to the historicity of the incident as early as the tenth century CE.^[69] In any event, relations between the Muslims and their pagan fellow-tribesmen rapidly deteriorated.

In 617 the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressurize it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.^[70]^[71]

Last years in Mecca

Road to Ta'if in the foreground, mountains of Ta'if in the background (Saudi Arabia).

Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "year of sorrow." With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the Banu Hashim clan was passed to Abu Lahab, an inveterate enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger of death since the withdrawal of clan protection implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.^[71]^[14] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im b. Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him safely to re-enter his native city.^[14]^[71]

Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).^[14] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism because a Jewish community existed there.^[14] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War"^[72] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.^[73]

Isra and Mi'raj

Main article: Isra and Mi'raj

The Al-Aqsa Mosque, the site from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven.

Islamic tradition relates that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.^[74] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience whereas later historians like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey.^[74] Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); but later tradition identified Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.^[75]

Timeline of Muhammad in Medina
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad in Medina
c. 618	Medinan Civil War
622	Emigrates to Medina (Hijra)
624	Battle of Badr: Muslims defeat Meccans
624	Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa
625	Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
625	Expulsion of Banu Nadir
627	Battle of the Trench
627	Demise of Banu Qurayza
628	Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
c. 628	Gains access to Meccan shrine Kaaba
628	Conquest of the Khaybar oasis
629	First hajj pilgrimage
629	Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah
630	Bloodless conquest of Mecca
c. 630	Battle of Hunayn
c. 630	Siege of Ta'if
c. 631	Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
c. 632	Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk
632	Farewell hajj pilgrimage
632	Death (June 8): Medina This box: view • talk • edit

Muhammad in Medina

Hijra

Main articles: Hijra (Islam) and Muhammad in Medina

A delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community.^[76]^[77] There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.^[76] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.^[76] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.^[14]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.^[78] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).^[14]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Medina Charter

Establishment of a new polity

Main article: Constitution of Medina

Among the first things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").^[76]^[77] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook but was also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.^[14] It effectively established the first Islamic state.

The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.^[79] Those Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (helpers).^[14] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the helpers and he chose Ali as his own brother.^[80]

With the early general conversion of the pagans, the pagan opposition was never of prime importance in the affairs of Medina. Those remaining pagans were very bitter about the advance of Islam. In particular, Asma bint Marwan and Abu 'Afak had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. These two were assassinated and Muhammad did not disapprove of it. No one dared take vengeance on them, and some members of Asma bint Marwan's clan who previously converted to Islam in secret, now professed Islam openly. This ended overt opposition to Muhammad among the pagans.^[81]

Beginnings of armed conflict

A map of the Badr campaign.

Main article: Battle of Badr

Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.^[82] Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans for their livelihood, thus initiating armed conflict between the Muslims and Mecca.^[83]^[84] Muhammad delivered Qur'anic verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see Qur'an 22:39–40).^[85] These attacks pressured Mecca by interfering with trade, and allowed the Muslims to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working towards their ultimate goal of inducing Mecca's submission to the new faith.^[86]^[87] In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for them at Badr.^[88] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr began in March of 624.^[89] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with only fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.^[90] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in return for wealth or freed.^[91]^[92]^[83] Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith.^[14] The Qur'anic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.^[93]

Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes.^[14] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hijaz.^[14]

Conflict with Mecca

Main article: Battle of Uhud

The attack at Badr committed Muhammad to total war with Meccans, who were now anxious to avenge their defeat. To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr.^[94] In the ensuing months, Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan.^[95] Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina.^[96]

Map of the Battle of Uhud, showing the Muslim and Meccan lines respectively.

A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle. Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the Battle of Uhud on March 23.^[97]^[98] Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters, indiscipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat, with 75 Muslims killed including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle and one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.^[99]^[100] The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad subsequently delivered Qur'anic verses ^{[Qur'an 3:152]} which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness.^[101]

Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina. He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of the prestige of the Quraysh and use of bribes.^[102] Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break them up.^[102] When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity.^[103] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that helped rouse the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.^[104] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina.^[105] Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies.^[106]

Siege of Medina

Main article: Battle of the Trench

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan had mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3000 men and adopted a new form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time: the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on March 31 627 and lasted for two weeks.^[107] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks, the coalition decided to go home.^[108] The Qur'an discusses this battle in verses Qur'an 33:9-33:27.^[63]

Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench).

During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located at the south of Medina, had entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although they were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after the prolonged negotiations, in part due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.^[109] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and all the men, apart from a few who converted to Islam, were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.^[110]^[111] In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted their utmost strength towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone.^[112] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north which ended without any fighting.^[14] While returning from one of these (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses.^[113]

Truce of Hudaybiyya

Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Although Muhammad had already delivered Qur'anic verses commanding the Hajj,^[114] the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj.^[115] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.^[116] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion.^[116]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān‎) or the "Pledge under the Tree." News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.^[116]^[117] The main points of the treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year; and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without the permission of their protector.^[116]

A rendering of the seal attributed to Muhammad used in the letters sent to other heads of state.

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Qur'an 48:1-29) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one.^[118] It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. According to Welch, these benefits included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals.^[14]

After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to it housing the Banu Nadir, who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain some prestige to deflect from what appeared to some Muslims as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.^[96]^[119] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).^[120]^[121]^[14] Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.^[120]^[121] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated.^[122]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca

The Kaaba in Mecca held a major economic and religious role for the area. It became the Muslim Qibla (prayer direction).

The truce of Hudaybiyya had been enforced for two years.^[123]^[124] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans.^[123]^[124] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuz'aah, killing a few of them.^[123]^[124] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.^[123] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were that either the Meccans paid blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, that they should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null.^[125]

An artist's depiction of Muhammad and his companions advancing on Mecca. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also in the painting.

The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition.^[125] However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad.

Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.^[126] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took control of Mecca.^[127] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who had mocked and ridiculed him in songs and verses. Some of these were later pardoned.^[128] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.^[129]^[130] The Qur'an discusses the conquest of Mecca.^[131]^[63]

Conquest of Arabia

Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Battle of Tabouk

Soon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an army twice the size of Muhammad's. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.^[132] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.^[14]

Muhammad prohibits intercalary months during the Farewell Pilgrimage. 17th century Ottoman copy of a 14th century (Ilkhanate) manuscript (Edinburgh codex). Illustration of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries.

In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah as well as reports of the hostile attitude adopted against Muslims. Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.^[14]^[133]

A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to Medina to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad in order to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties of the wars.^[14] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their ancestral traditions. Muhammad thus required of them a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."^[134]

Farewell pilgrimage and death

Pilgrims circumambulating the Kaaba during the Hajj.

Main article: The Farewell Pilgrimage

At the end of the tenth year after the migration to Medina, Muhammad carried through his first truly Islamic pilgrimage, thereby teaching his followers the rites of the annual Great Pilgrimage (Hajj).^[14]

After completing the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivered a famous speech known as The Farewell Sermon. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs such as adding intercalary months to align the lunar calendar with the solar calendar. Muhammad abolished all old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for all old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammed asked his male followers to “Be good to women; for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ...”. He also told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. Muhammad also addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and also forbidding his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.^[135]^[136] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Qur'anic verse was delivered in this incident: “Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you.”(Qur'an 5:3)^[14] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.^[137]

The Mosque of the Prophet (Al-Masjid al-Nabawi) is Islam's second most sacred site. The green dome in the background stands above Muhammad's tomb.

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. He died on Monday, June 8, 632, in Medina. He is buried in his tomb (which previously was in his wife Aisha's house) which is now housed within the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina.^[138]^[14]^[139] Next to Muhammad's tomb, there is another empty tomb that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.^[139]

Aftermath

See also: Rashidun, Muslim conquest, and Succession to Muhammad

Conquests of Muhammad and the Rashidun.

Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.^[140] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to make an expedition against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode referred to by later Muslim historians as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".^[141]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the inhabitants, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, most Christian Churches in the lands to be conquered by Muslims such as Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts were under pressure from the Christian Orthodoxy who deemed them heretics. Within only a decade, Muslims conquered Mesopotamia and Persia, Roman Syria and Roman Egypt.^[142] and established Rashidun empire.

Wives and children

Main articles: Muhammad's wives and Ahl al-Bayt

Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives or concubines (there are differing accounts on the status of some of them as wife or concubine^[143])^[144] All but two of his marriages were contracted after the migration to Medina.

Part of a series on Islam:
The Wives of Muhammad

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya

Zaynab bint Jahsh

Juwayriya bint al-Harith

Ramlah bint Abi-Sufyan

Rayhana bint Amr ibn Khunafa

Safiyya bint Huyayy

Maymuna bint al-Harith

Maria al-Qibtiyya

At the age of 25, Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.^[145] Muhammad relied upon Khadija in many ways and did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.^[146]^[147] After the death of Khadija, it was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim, that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, the young daughter of Abu Bakr.^[148] Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both.^[113] Later, Muhammad married additional wives nine of whom survived him.^[144] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by many decades and was instrumental in helping to bring together the scattered sayings of Muhammad that would form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.^[113]

After migration to Medina, Muhammad (who was now in his fifties) married several women. These marriages were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons, these wives being either widows of Muslims who had been killed in the battles and had been left without a protector, or belonging to important families or clans whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.^[149]

Muhammad did his own household chores and helped with housework, such as preparing food, sewing clothes and repairing shoes. Muhammad is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.^[150]^[151]^[152]

Khadijah is said to have borne Muhammad four daughters (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad), though all except two of his daughters, Fatimah and Zainab, died before him.^[153] Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.^[154] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.^[153]

Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.^[155]

Legacy

Reforms

Main article: Early reforms under Islam

According to William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private and individual matter but rather “the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."^[156] Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions in Islam – one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought.^[157]

9th century Qur'an, the main legacy of Muhammad.

Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.^[157]^[158] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".^[157] Muhammad's message transformed the society and moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation of society as regards to identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.^[159] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.^[160] The Qur'an requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor, and as Muhammad's position grew in power he demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.^[161]^[162]

Sunnah

The Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith), and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, “may peace be upon you” (Arabic: as-salamu `alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Qur'an.^[163]

The Sunnah also played a major role in the development of the Islamic sciences. It contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.^[164] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Qur'an and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.^[165]

Traditional views

Muslim veneration

See also: Islamic views of Muhammad, Naat, Depictions of Muhammad, Islamic music, Qawwali, and Islamic view of miracles

Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in the Shahadah that "I testify that Muhammad is a messenger of Allah". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a newborn will hear, and children are taught as soon as they are able to understand it and it will be recited when they die. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.^[166]

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles (particularly "Splitting of the moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Qur'an 21:107).^[14] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).^[14] Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.^[167] Muslims experience Muhammad as a living reality, believing in his ongoing significance to human beings as well as animals and plants.^[167]

Topkapı Palace gate with Shahadah and his seal. The Muslim Profession of faith, the Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad – "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger."

According to historian Denis Gril, the Qur'an does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is finally identified with the Qur’an itself.^[168] However, Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several supernatural events.^[169] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1-2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.^[168]^[170]

Persian manuscript miniature depicting Muhammad, from Rashid al-Din's Jami al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315, illustrating the episode of the Black Stone.^[171]

"Muhammad preaching" (1840-1850) by Grigory Gagarin - a 19th Century Russian view of the founder of Islam.

When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad or any other prophet in Islam, they usually follow it with Peace be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu `alayhi wa sallam).^[172]

European and Western views

See also: Medieval Christian view of Muhammad

The biographical knowledge about Muhammad in the learned, Latin circles of the Middle Ages in Europe, was remarkably precise to some extent and a good amount of concrete data about his life was known. Learned European circles of the time interpreted the data in such a way that Muhammad was viewed as a charlatan driven by ambition and eagerness for power, and who seduced the Saracens into his submission under a religious guise.^[14] This knowledge about Muhammad's life in Latin theological texts was not reflected in the popular literature of the Middle Ages, in which Muhammad was viewed as an idol or one of the heathen gods.^[14] Some medieval Christians said he died in 666, alluding to the number of the beast, instead of 632;^[173] others changed his name from Muhammad to Mahound, the "devil incarnate".^[174] Bernard Lewis writes "The development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termagant in an unholy trinity."^[175] A later medieval work, Livre dou Tresor represents Muhammad as a former monk and cardinal.^[14] Dante's Divine Comedy (Canto XXVIII), puts Muhammad, together with Ali, in Hell "among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again."^[14]

After the reformation, Muhammad was no longer viewed as a god or idol, but as a cunning, ambitious, and self-seeking impostor.^[175]^[14] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad.^[14] Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.^[14] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".^[14] Friedrich Bodenstedt (1851) described Muhammad as "an ominous destroyer and a prophet of murder."^[14] Later Western works, many of which, from the 18th century onward, distanced themselves from the polemical histories of earlier Christian authors. These more historically-oriented treatments, which generally reject the prophethood of Muhammad, are coloured by the Western philosophical and theological framework of their authors. Many of these studies reflect much historical research, and most pay more attention to human, social, economic, and political factors than to religious, theological, and spiritual matters.^[19]

It was not until the latter part of the 20th century that Western authors combined rigorous scholarship as understood in the modern West with empathy toward the subject at hand and, especially, awareness of the religious and spiritual realities involved in the study of the life of the founder of a major world religion.^[19] According to Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers have generally dismissed the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad “was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith”.^[176] Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his own subconscious for divine revelation.^[177] Although Muhammad's image in the west is much less unfavorable than in the past, prejudicial folk beliefs remain.^[178]

Watt and Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand the development of Islam.^[179]^[180] Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.^[14] Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause when there seemed to be no rational basis for hope shows his sincerity.^[181]

Other religious traditions

Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh.^[182]
Muhammad is regarded as one of the Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers Muhammad, along with Confucius, the Reformers, as well as philosophers including Socrates, Plato, and others, to have received a portion of God's light and that moral truths were given to them to enlighten nations and bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.^[183]
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, viewed Muhammad as an agent of the Hindu supreme being Brahman.^[184]
The Roman Catholic Church, does not regard Muhammad as a prophet. According to Pope John Paul II, Muhammad's teachings "completely reduces Divine Revelation" and sets aside "all the richness of God's self-revelation, which constitutes the heritage of the Old and New Testaments". He then explained that the God of the Koran is "ultimately a God outside of the world, a God who is only Majesty, never Emmanuel, God-with-us. Islam is not a religion of redemption. There is no room for the Cross and the Resurrection. [...] For this reason not only the theology but also the anthropology of Islam is very distant from Christianity." Pope John Paul II adds that nevertheless Muslims' fidelity to prayer deserves admiration.^[185]

Notes

^ See Muhittin Serin (1988)
^ Unicode has a special "Muhammad" ligature at U+FDF4 ﷴ
^ click here (help·info) for the Arabic pronunciation.
^ Variants of Muhammad's name in French: "Mahon, Mahomés, Mahun, Mahum, Mahumet"; in German: "Machmet"; and in Old Icelandic: "Maúmet" cf Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ The sources frequently say that, in his youth, he was called by the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "Honest, Truthful" cf. Ernst (2004), p. 85.
^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63
^ Esposito (1998), p. 12.
^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
^ ^a ^b F. E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
^ Alphonse de Lamartine (1854), Historie de la Turquie, Paris, p. 280:

"Philosophe, orateur, apôtre, législateur, guerrier, conquérant d'idées, restaurateur de dogmes, d'un culte sans images, fondateur de vingt empires terrestres et d'un empire spirituel, voilà Mahomet!"
^ ^a ^b Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
^ 'Islam' is always referred to in the Qur'an as a dīn, a word that means "way" or "path" in Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for the sake of convenience
^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap ^aq Alford Welch, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ "Muhmmad," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Lapidus (2002), pp 0.31 and 32
^ Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p.212
^ Watt (1974) p. 231
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105853/Muhammad. Retrieved on 20 March 2008.
^ Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Ernst (2004), p. 80
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6
^ F. E. Peters (1991) pp. 291–315.
^ ^a ^b Watt (1953), p.xi
^ Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
^ Donner (1998), p. 132
^ Watt (1953), p.xv
^ Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
^ Cragg, Albert Kenneth. "Hadith". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105855/Hadith. Retrieved on 30 March 2008.
^ Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
^ Madelung (1997), pp.xi, 19 and 20
^ ^a ^b Watt (1953), pp.1–2
^ Watt (1953), pp. 16–18
^ Loyal Rue, Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological,2005, p.224
^ John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, p.4–5
^ See:
- Esposito, Islam, Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp.5–7
- Qur'an 3:95
^ Kochler (1982), p.29
^ cf. Uri Rubin, Hanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ See:
- Louis Jacobs(1995), p.272
- Turner (2005), p.16
^ See also ^{[Qur'an 43:31]} cited in EoI; Muhammad
^ ^a ^b Watt (1974), p. 7.
^ Josef W. Meri (2005), p. 525
^ Watt, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ Watt, Amina, Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b ^c Watt (1974), p. 8.
^ Armand Abel, Bahira, Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2005), v.3, p. 1025
^ Esposito (1998), p. 6
^ Emory C. Bogle(1998), p.6
^ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland(1904), p.83
^ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
^
- Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.7
- Razwy (1996), ch. 9
- Rodinson (2002), p. 71.
^ Brown (2003), pp. 73–74
^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 31.
^ ^a ^b Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Daniel C. Peterson, Good News, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ ^a ^b Watt (1953), p. 86
^ Ramadan (2007), p. 37–9
^ ^a ^b ^c Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36.
^ F. E. Peters (1994), p.169
^ ^a ^b ^c Uri Rubin, Quraysh, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
^ Jonathan E. Brockopp, Slaves and Slavery, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ W. Arafat, Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Watt (1964) p. 76.
^ Peters (1999) p. 172.
^ Some early Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
^ Shahab Ahmed, Satanic Verses, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ F. E. Peters (2003b), p. 96
^ ^a ^b ^c Moojan Momen (1985), p. 4
^ Watt (1974) p. 83
^ Peterson (2006), pg. 86-9
^ ^a ^b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 482
^ Sells, Michael. Ascension, Encyclopedia of the Quran.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
^ ^a ^b Esposito (1998), p. 17.
^ Moojan Momen (1985), p. 5
^ Watt (1956), p. 175, p. 177.
^ "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a043.html. Retrieved on 25 October 2007.
^ Watt (1956), p. 179.
^ Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21
^ ^a ^b Lewis(2002), p. 44.
^ Watt (1961), p. 105.
^ John Kelsay (1993), p. 21
^ Watt(1961) p. 105, p. 107
^ Lewis (1993), p. 41.
^ Rodinson (2002), p. 164.
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 45
^ Glubb (2002), pp. 179–186.
^ Watt (1961), p. 123.
^ Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–9.
^ Lewis(2002), p. 44
^ Watt (1961), p. 132.
^ Watt (1961), p. 134
^ ^a ^b Lewis (1960), p. 45.
^ C.F. Robinson, Uhud, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Watt (1964) p. 137
^ Watt (1974) p. 137
^ David Cook(2007), p.24
^ See:
- Watt (1981) p. 432;
- Watt (1964) p. 144.
^ ^a ^b Watt (1956), p. 30.
^ Watt (1956), p. 34
^ Watt (1956), p. 18
^ Watt (1956), pp. 220–221
^ Watt (1956), p. 35
^ Watt (1956), p. 36, 37
^ See:
- Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–211;
- Watt (1964) p. 169
^ Watt (1964) pp. 170–172
^ Peterson(2007), p. 126
^ Ramadan (2007), p. 141
^ Watt (1956), p. 39
^ ^a ^b ^c Watt, Aisha, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ ^{[Qur'an 2:196-210]}
^ Lings (1987), p. 249
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watt, al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Lewis (2002), p. 42.
^ Lings (1987), p. 255
^ Vaglieri, Khaybar, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b Lings (1987), p. 260
^ ^a ^b Khan (1998), pp. 250–251
^ F. Buhl, Muta, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Khan (1998), p. 274
^ ^a ^b ^c Lings (1987), p. 291
^ ^a ^b Khan (1998), pp. 274–5.
^ Lings (1987), p. 292
^ Watt (1956), p. 66.
^ Rodinson (2002), p. 261.
^ Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p.163
^ F. E. Peters (2003), p.240
^ ^{[Qur'an 110:1]}
^ Watt (1974), p.207
^ M.A. al-Bakhit, Tabuk, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Lewis (1993), pp.43–44
^ Devin J. Stewart, Farewell Pilgrimage, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Al-Hibri (2003), p.17
^ See:
- Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan, volume 9, pages 227-247
- Comparing the Tafsir of various exegetes
^ Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)
^ ^a ^b F. E. Peters(2003), p.90
^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Lapidus (2002), pp 0.31 and 32
^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Hourani (2003), p.22
- Lapidus (2002), p.32
- Esposito(1998), p.36
- Madelung (1996), p.43
^ Esposito (1998), p.35–36
^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
^ ^a ^b Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ Esposito (1998), p. 18
^ Bullough (1998), p. 119
^ Reeves (2003), p. 46
^ D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, (1996) ISBN 0231079990, p. 40: "in Ibn Sa'd, the age of Aisha at marriage varies between six and seven"
^ Momen (1985), p.9
^ Tariq Ramadan (2007), p. 168–9
^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125
^ Armstrong (1992), p. 157
^ ^a ^b Nicholas Awde (2000), p.10
^ Ordoni (1990) pp. 32, 42–44.
^ "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
^ Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lewis (1998)
^
- Watt (1974), p. 234
- Robinson (2004) p. 21
- Esposito (1998), p. 98
- R. Walzer, Ak̲h̲lāḳ, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
^ Islamic ethics, Encyclopedia of Ethics
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 34
^ Esposito (1998), p. 30
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 52
^ Muhammad, Encyclopædia Britannica, p.9
^ J. Schacht, Fiḳh, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Muhammad, Encyclopædia Britannica, p.11–12
^ Farah (1994), p.135
^ ^a ^b Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Encyclopedia Britannica, Muhammad, p.13
^ ^a ^b Denis Gril, Miracles, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ A.J. Wensinck, Muʿd̲j̲iza, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Daniel Martin Varisco, Moon, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Ali, Wijdan (1999),p. 3
^ Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p.212
^ Göran Larsson (2003), p. 87
^ Reeves (2003), p. 3
^ ^a ^b Lewis (2002) p. 45.
^ Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18
^ Watt (1974), p. 17
^ Watt (1974) p. 231.
^ Watt, The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 37
^ Lewis (1993), p. 45.
^ Watt (1974), p. 232
^ Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. p. 251. ISBN 1851681841.
^ James A. Toronto (August 2000). "A Latter-day Saint Perspective on Muhammad". Ensign. http://www.lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=bbaba1615ac0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1. Retrieved on 2007-11-19.
^ Peter Teed (1992), p.424
^ {{cite book | last =John Paul II | first =Pope | authorlink =[[Pope John Paul II| title =Crossing the Threshold of Hope | publisher =Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. | year =1994 | pages =93-94 | isbn = 0-679-76561-1}}

References

Ahmed, Leila (Summer 1986). "Women and the Advent of Islam". Signs 11 (4): 665–91. doi:10.1086/494271.
Ali, Wijdan. "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art". In Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art, eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen. No. 7, 1–24. Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 23–28, 1999.
Armstrong, K. (1992). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. Harpercollins. ISBN 0062508865. http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0062508865/ref=sib_dp_pt#.
Awde, Nicholas (2000). Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Quran and Hadith. Routledge. ISBN 0700710124.
Ballard, Harold Wayne; Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002). A Journey of Faith: An Introduction to Christianity. Mercer University Press. ISBN 0865547467.
Barlas, Asma (2002). Believing Women in Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292709048.
Bogle, Emory C. (1998). Islam: Origin and Belief. Texas University Press. ISBN 0292708629.
Brown, Daniel (2003). A New Introduction to Islam. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0631216049.
Bullough, Vern L; Brenda Shelton, Sarah Slavin (1998). The Subordinated Sex: A History of Attitudes Toward Women. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0820323695.
Cohen, Mark R. (1995). Under Crescent and Cross (Reissue edition ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691010823.
Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791470334.
Donner, Fred (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-127-4.
Endress, Gerhard (2003). Islam. New Age Books. ISBN 978-8178221564.
Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511233-4.
Esposito, John (1999). The Islamic Threat: Myth Or Reality?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513076-6.
Esposito, John (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812018530.
Glubb, John Bagot (1970 (reprint 2002)). The Life and Times of Muhammad. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-8154-1176-6.
Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: spiritual leaders of the world. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195082400.
Goldman, Ann; Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006). Oxford Textbook of Palliative Care for Children. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198526539.
Haaren, John Henry; Addison B. Poland (1904). Famous Men of the Middle Ages. University Publishing Company.
Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.
Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam (Paperback). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521291354.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178.
Ishaq, Ibn; Guillaume, Alfred, ed. (2002). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0196360331.
Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198264631.
Kelsay, John (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664253024.
Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4.
Kochler, Hans (1982). Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity. I.P.O.. ISBN 3-7003-0339-4.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
Larsson, Göran (2003). Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004127402.
Lewis, Bernard (1993, 2002). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280310-7.
Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An History Enquiry (Reprint edition ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195053265.
Lewis, Bernard (January 21, 1998). "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books.
Lings, Martin (1987). Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International, Limited .. ISBN 0-89281-170-6.
Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300035314.
Neusner, Jacob (2003). God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-910-6.
Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam:Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253216273.
Ordoni, Abu Muhammad; Muhammad Kazim Qazwini (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN B000BWQ7N6.
Peters, Francis Edward (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
Peters, Francis Edward (2003b). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ASIN: B0012385Z6.
Peters, Francis Edward (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791418766.
Peters Francis Edwards (1991), The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies.
Peterson, Daniel (2007). Muhammad, Prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0802807542.
Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226702812.
Ramadan, Tariq (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195308808.
Razwi, Ali Asgher (1997). A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims. World Federation of K S I Muslim Communities Islamic Centre. ISBN 0950987913.
Reeves, Minou (2003). Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0814775646.
Robinson, David (2004). Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052153366X.
Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 1-86064-827-4.
Rue, Loyal (2005). Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological. Rutgers. ISBN 0813539552.
Serin, Muhittin (1998). Hattat Aziz Efendi. Istanbul. ISBN 9-7576-6303-4, OCLC 51718704.
Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-31486-0.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi. WOFIS. ISBN 9646521142.
Teed, Peter (1992). A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192116762.
Turner, Colin (2005). Islam: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 041534106X.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. (New edition 1974)
Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577307-1.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. ASIN: B000IUA52A.

Encyclopedias

William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101.
Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038.
P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed.. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd edition ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004123564.
Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 0198602235.
The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Rev Ed edition ed.). Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005. ISBN 978-1593392369.

External links

Find more about Muhammad on Wikipedia's sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

Non-Muslim biographies

Muhammad, article on Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — PBS Site
Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — UPF (Producer's Site)

Muslim biographies

[show]

Prophets of Islam in the Qur'an

[show] v • d • e Islam topics

Beliefs	God in Islam · Tawhid · Muhammad · Prophets of Islam

Five Pillars	Shahadah · Salah · Sawm · Zakat · Hajj

History & leaders	Timeline of Muslim history · Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba · Shi'a Imams · Caliphs: Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Ottomans · Caliphates: Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad, Abbasid, Caliphate of Cordoba, Fatimid, Ottoman Empire · Conquests · Golden Age · Agricultural Revolution

Religious texts	Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith

Denominations	Sunni · Shia · Sufism · Ibadi

Life and Culture	Animals · Art · Calendar · Children · Holidays · Mosques · Philosophy · Political aspects · Science · Women · Islamic studies · Islam by country

Law & Jurisprudence	Baligh · Cleanliness · Criminal · Dhabiĥa · Dhimmi · Divorce · Diet · Economics: Banking, Economic history, Murabaha, Riba · Ethics · Etiquette · Gambling · Gender segregation · Ghusl · Honorifics · Hudud · Hygiene: Miswak, Toilet, Wudu, Najis · Inheritance · Jizya · Leadership · Marital: Marriage contract, Nikah, Nikah Mut‘ah · Mahr · Mahram · Ma malakat aymanukum · Military: Prisoners of war · Slavery · Political · Sexuality: Masturbation, Sexual techniques · Sukuk · Takaful · Tayammum · Theological: Kalam · Zina · Sources

Islamic studies	Agriculture · Arts: Arabesque, Architecture, Calligraphy, Music, Pottery · Creationism · Feminism · Golden Age · Literature: Poetry · Philosophy: Early philosophy, Modern philosophy, Eschatology, Ethics, Theology · Sciences: Alchemy & Chemistry, Astrology, Astronomy, Economics, Islam and science, Mathematics, Medicine, Physics, Psychology · Sociology: Early sociology · Shu'ubiyya · Sports · Conversion of mosques · Historiography · Inventions

Other religions	Christianity · Hinduism · Jainism · Judaism · Sikhism

Related topics	Apostasy · Controversies · Criticism of Islam · Criticism of Muhammad · Criticism of the Qur'an · Islamism · Islamophobia · Islamic terrorism · Islamic view of miracles · Islam and antisemitism · Domestic violence · Persecution of Muslims · Qur'an and miracles · Qutbism

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"

ISLAM IS THE BEST (isisbest)

TEROR ZIONIS

Muhammad

Muhammad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents

Names and appellations in the Qur'an

Sources for Muhammad's life

Background

Life

Muhammad in Mecca

Childhood and early life

Beginnings of the Qur'an

Opposition

Last years in Mecca

Isra and Mi'raj

Muhammad in Medina

Hijra

Establishment of a new polity

Beginnings of armed conflict

Conflict with Mecca

Siege of Medina

Truce of Hudaybiyya

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

Conquest of Arabia

Farewell pilgrimage and death

Aftermath

Wives and children

Legacy

Reforms

Sunnah

Traditional views

Muslim veneration

European and Western views

Other religious traditions

See also

Notes

References

Encyclopedias

Further reading

External links